THE ROLES OF BEHAVIORISM THEORY IN LEARNING ENGLISH FOR THE BEGINNERS

THE ROLES OF BEHAVIORISM THEORY IN LEARNING ENGLISH FOR THE BEGINNERS

By Anselmus Sahan*

Part I
Introduction

Many countries over the world have been practicing the “Human Development” as a great project facing all decision makers. This human project is done in various ways in accordance with the basic needs of each nation or country. However, basically it is carried out because of some reasons as follows: Firstly, human beings have created many theories which are in fact useful for their lives, their relations with nature and/or other creatures. Those theories give reflection to human beings to feel that they are not the only creatures and therefore try to make this world full of friendship, joy and happiness. In the twentieth century, countries which do not care nature are blamed as the source of natural disasters. Actions to love nature particularly environment have become an integral part of human lives whenever and wherever they are.
Secondly, human development as a project has to empower the human beings as a central spot of this project. This can be manifested through educating human beings to love nature, to make real things to protect nature and/or environment, and to make humanism relations with other human beings across the areas and/or countries. Nowadays, there are three central issues addressed to the world society, namely: democratization, nature and gender. These three great issues can make people feel that each person has right, but there is no freedom to cut trees or burn the forest, and all women have the equal rights to do as the man do.



And finally, development is viewed as a progressive series of changes that occur in a predictable pattern as the result of an interaction between biological and environmental factors. In real life, to implement this view, education is regarded as the central institutions that can realize these three issues. Of course, education world which has curriculum in which all subjects are defined is a leading sector which can reach the aims of human development.

In line with the growth of population over the world, scientists try to develop at least four basic theories which discuss in detail the human being development, particularly in its implementation in education field. Those theories of human development are the Maturational Model, the Psychoanalytic Model, the Behavioral Model, and the Cognitive-Developmental Model (Salkind, 1985: 11-19).
The Maturational Model, developed by a physician, Gessel believes that the sequence of development is determined by the biological and evolutionary history of the species; or, development of the organism is essentially under the control of biological system and the process of maturation. Environment only acts in a supportive role. He adds that behavior at different stages of development has different degrees of balance and stability.

The Psychoanalytic Model, developed by Sigmund Freud, views that development is revolutionary in both its content and implication for the nature of development, consisting of dynamic, structural, and sequential components influenced by a continuously renewed need for the gratification of basic instincts. Psychic energy or energy of life is channeled through three different components or Freud’s tripartite system (the dynamic or economic component, the structural or topographical component, and the sequential or stage of component) that constitute the basis of the developmental process and individual differences. He adds that the dynamic or economic component characterizes the human mind (or psyche) as a fluid, energized system that can transfer energy from one part to the other where and when needed. The structural or topographical component describes the three separate, yet interdependent, psychological structures called id, ego, and superego and the way in which they regulate behavior. The sequential or stage of component emphasizes a progression from one stage of development to the next, focusing on different zones of bodily sensitivity (such as mouth) and accompanying psychological and social conflicts.

The Behavioral Model, developed by John Locke, et al views that development is a function of learning and one that proceeds according to certain laws or principles of learning. It places the major impetus for growth and development outside of the individual in the environment and organism is seen as reactive instead of active. The laws of learning and the influence of the environment paramount in the developmental process, covering classical conditioning and imitation. The newborn child as a naive and unlearned based on “Tabula Rasa” or “blank slate”. The Cognitive-Developmental Model: Stressing on the individual’s active rather than reactive role in the developmental process. Experience is the important factor in the developmental process.

The Cognitive-Developmental Model, developed by Ausubel and Sullivan, stresses the individual’s active rather than reactive role in the developmental process. Its basic assumptions are: (a) development occurs in a series of qualitatively distinct stages, (b) these stages always follow the same sequence, but do not necessarily occur at the same times for all individuals, (c) the stages are hierarchically organized such that a later stage subsumes the characteristics of an earlier one.

In addition, the presence of psychological structures and the way in which changes in these underlying structures are reflected in overt changes in behaviors. The form these changes take, depends on the individual’s developmental level. Development as a process qualitative differentiation or evolution of form, consisting of a series of sequence of orderly stages that are internally regulated, and that individual is transformed from one into the other.

However, this simple paper just wants to discuss the Behavioral Model, developed by John Locke, et al. I focus my discussion on this model because I think it is relevance with students who learn English in the beginning called beginner. I believe as beginners, they will find many difficulties to understand, for example, sounds, words and sentences, et cetera. Trough this model, teacher can help his students to slowly teach them to master English. Therefore, I can state the problem of my paper as follows: “How can the Behavioral Model help teacher to make learning situation for his students?”

To get the materials of the discussion I just read some books or references relevance with human development, education development, and models of human development theories. I believe those references have given inspiration to write this simple paper.
While to analyze the data gathered, I analyze them using the framework of the theories of human development. As stated in the problems of my paper, I analyze the data by reflecting some activities of the behavioral model practiced in teaching and elements of the model related to its strengths and weaknesses aimed at giving consideration to education practitioners of teaching not just to adopt this model and implement it in all classroom activities. What I want to share is that teacher may know this model and attempt to apply some relevance activities hoped that they can help students to learn English well.

Part II
Discussion

A. What is Behavioral Model?

John Locke, et al view that development is a function of learning and one that proceeds according to certain laws or principles of learning. This means that students’ intellectual development really exists in each student. To realize it, learning should function to provide him/her a chance to reach it. Something which is provided for student to learn, according to this model, is called stimulus (Salkind, 1985: 16-17).
In the same way, this model places the major impetus for growth and development outside of the individual in the environment and organism is seen as reactive instead of active. It means that if a learning activity provided some stimuli, student should give response to those stimuli. If the stimulus provided is responded, then it is viewed that learning is able to create a stimulus and response condition.

To realize and particularly to strengthen the work of stimulus and response, this model exposes the laws of learning and the influence of the environment which is paramount in the developmental process, covering classical conditioning and imitation. It indicates that the creation of condition in which stimulus and response may happen, is a prerequisite task. The creation of the condition is realized in forms of imitation activities. It believes that one difficult problem, if it is imitated from day to day or from time to time, will be easily solved and consequently be memorized its laws.

It seems that this model really trusts that the newborn child as a naive and unlearned is “Tabula Rasa” or “blank slate”. A child who is still small will be an adult and experience a new environment in which she/he learns new things, such as words learning. In the process of his/her physical and emotional developments, he will face ways how he/she adapts himself and adopt new formulas which might be useful for his/her life.
As the final proposal, it is believed that experience is the important factor in the developmental process. As previously stated that a child will grow in a new environment, learning new things and those will enrich his experience. Through those experiences he/she will learn ways to socialize and actualize him/herself in his environment. By involving him/herself in the environment he/she will experience the changes of his/her emotional (intelligence) conditions.

B. Skinner’s Behaviorism Theory

Beside John Locke, Burrhus Frederic Skinner, an influential American Psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform and poet, also conducted pioneering work in psychology and innovated his own school of Radical Behaviorism. It seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences. He is known as the inventor of the operant conditioning chamber (or Skinner box), a research tool used to examine the orderly relations of the behavior of organisms (such as rats, pigeons and humans) to their environment (Salkind, 1985: 16-17 and 135-149).

He articulated the now widely accepted term reinforcement as a scientific principle of behavior. His position reflects the extension of the influence of physicist Ernst Mach’s The Science of Mechanics to the subject of psychology. Skinner’s pioneering research reflected the dual influence of whole organism research in Ivan Pavlov and Jacques Loeb.

Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber which was used to measure organic responses and their orderly interactions with the environment. This device was an example of his lifelong ability to invent useful devices, which included whimsical devices in his childhood to the cumulative recorder to measure the rate of response of organisms in an operant chamber. Even in old age, Skinner invented a Thinking Aid to assist in writing.

The teaching machine was a mechanical device whose purpose was to administer a curriculum of programmed instruction. It housed a list of questions, and a mechanism through which the learner could respond to each question. Upon delivering a correct answer, the learner would be rewarded.

Finding the behaviorism of his time to be problematic, Skinner branched off his own version he called Radical Behaviorism which unlike methodological behaviorism did not require truth by consensus so it could accept private events such as thinking, perception and emotion in its account. Also, unlike all of the other behaviorists such as Tolman, Hull and Clark, Skinner’s version radically rejected mediating constructs and the hypothetico-deductive method, instead offering a strongly inductive, data driven approach that has proven to be successful in dozens of areas from behavioral pharmacology to language therapy in the developmentally delayed.

He is the author of Walden Two, Beyond the Freedom and Dignity, Verbal Behavior, Science and Human Behavior, and numerous other books and articles.

Challenged by Alfred North Whitehead during a casual discussion while at Harvard to provide an account of a randomly provided piece of verbal behavior Skinner set about attempting to extend his then-new functional, inductive, approach to the complexity of human verbal behavior. Developed over two decades, his work appeared as the culmination of the William James lectures in the book, Verbal Behavior. Although Noam Chomsky was highly critical of Verbal Behavior, he conceded that it was the “most careful and thoroughgoing presentation of such speculations” as a reason for giving it “a review.” After a slow reception, perhaps due to its lack of experimental evidence unlike Skinner’s previous work Skinner’s functional analysis of verbal behavior has seen a resurgence of interest in applied settings.

Skinner influenced education as well as psychology. He was quoted as saying, “Teachers must learn how to teach… they need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching.” Skinner asserted that positive reinforcement is more effective at changing and establishing behavior than punishment, with obvious implications for the then widespread practice of rote learning and punitive discipline in education. Skinner also suggests that the main thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid getting punished the next time.

Skinner says that there are 5 main obstacles in learning: (a) people have a fear of failure, (b) there is a lack of directions, (c) there is also a lack of clarity in the direction, (d) positive reinforcement is not used enough, and (e) the task is not broken down into small enough steps. Therefore, Skinner suggests that with all of the obstacles out of the way any age appropriate skill can be taught using his 5 principles: (a) have small steps, (b) work from most simple to most complex tasks, (c) repeat the directions as many times as possible, (d) give immediate feedback, and (e) give positive reinforcement.

Skinner’s views on education are extensively written about in his book The Technology of Teaching. It is also reflected in Fred S. Keller’s Programmed System of Instruction and Ogden R. Lidsley’s Precision Teaching.
In addition, part of Skinner’s analysis of behavior involved not only the power of a single instance of reinforcement, but the effects of particular schedules of reinforcement over time. Skinner’s types of schedules of reinforcement involved: interval (fixed or variable) and ratio (fixed or variable).

* Continuous reinforcement. It is a constant delivery of reinforcement for an action; every time a specific action was performed the subject instantly and always received a reinforcement. However, this method is prone to extinction and is very hard to enforce.
* Interval (fixed/variable) reinforcement. It is a fixed reinforcement which contains a set for certain times. Its variables are times between reinforcement although they are not set, and often differ.
* Ratio (fixed or variable) reinforcement. It is also fixed reinforcement which deals with a set amount of work needed to be completed before there is reinforcement. Its variable is amount of work needed for the reinforcement that differs from the last.

C. Application of Behaviorism Theory

The Behavioral Models both proposed by John Locke, et al and Skinner which deals with the changes of attitudes as the results of stimulus given set up some basic principles of its application in running a teaching and learning process, particularly to the beginner students who firstly learn English subject. These principles have potencies to change their behavior and force them to do the tasks given as seen in the following description.

1. Set up instructional objectives. The Behaviorism Model helps teacher to set up objectives of his teaching so that his students can follow learning process, understand the materials presented, and complete the tasks given. All tasks are formed through repetition drills and imitation. Before doing the tasks, teacher has provided a answer model and students should follows it. In the same way, teacher also provides some fixed forms of sentences and those require students to memorize and follow their teacher’s model of pronunciation.
2. Analyze current classroom environment, including identifying students’ ”entry behavior”. One of the most important duties teacher does in this model is that she/he should have competence to know a set of knowledge his students have before joining a certain topic. This is a prerequisite condition because by knowing this before, teacher can manage teaching and learning process well. To know students’ entry behavior, for example, teachers always prepares some questions (called leading questions) before presenting the materials of his teaching and asks those questions to students. If students can answer those questions, he/she may conclude that students have had knowledge about the topic he/she is going to teach. If not he should consider the best ways (in forms of exercises) to help them learn the materials given.
3. Establish learning materials (themes, topics, and sub topics). In this instance, for example, English subject taught to Junior High School Students, teacher establishes some topics and/or sub topics to be taught in one semester. Usually those topic and/or sub topics are provided in the Curriculum. But his tasks are to arrange some activities containing stimuli that might be helpful for increasing students’ motivation (responses) in learning those materials.
4. Divide learning materials into some topics and/or sub topics. Because the topics provided in the Curriculum book are of various topics, teacher should be able to divide them into some sub topics. This division will help him to set up priority scale in presenting the sub topics.
5. Present learning materials. After preparing the materials for teaching, now it is time for teacher to present them in the classroom. In presenting those materials, teacher should have extra abilities to enable his students to learn. It means that she/he should provide a set of exercises that require students to master the materials being given.
6. Give possible stimulus such as questions, test, exercises, and tasks or assignments. As stated before, in the beginning part of his teaching, teacher may offer some questions just to measure whether students have knowledge about the materials he/she will teach. Some kinds of questions may be also addressed in the middle and/or at the end of lesson. Usually, kinds of questions addressed in the middle and at the end of lesson aim to measure whether students have understood the materials being presented or not. If not, she/he will summarize the materials and give home assignment. In the same way, at the ending part of lesson, teacher can give them test, exercises and/or tasks to complete individually or in group. These have the same aim with the questions but need a lot of time to think and find out the answers.
7. Monitor and analyze responses addressed. While students do the tasks given, teacher can monitor students’ activities and try to analyze why they are really active, why some of them are passive, or why there are some groups which can complete the tasks fast while others not.
8. Give reinforcement (may be positive or negative reinforcement). Usually reinforcement is given at the ending part of lesson. In this time, teacher assigns students some exercises aimed at measuring students’ comprehension.
9. Give new stimulus. In this step, teacher provides some exercises which are mostly the same as the materials being given. For example, the topic of teaching English today is “Present Tense”. To help his students, teacher provides some sentences related to Present Tense and asks them to make negative forms, questions and short answers. But at the ending part of lesson, teacher distributes an article copied from English magazine and asks students to underline some Present Tense Sentences in the article. This is called new stimulus.
10. Monitor and analyze responses given (evaluate learning achievements). Monitor appears in form of observing students responses during presenting the materials or completing the exercises given. Of course, it aims to know students’ participation and activity. At the same time, particularly after completing a task, teacher revises their answers and finds that there are still some students who get low marks. By the fact, he plans to prepare a new stimulus.
11. Give reinforcement. Giving reinforcement is actually the realization of teacher’s findings that there are some students whose marks are still under the passing standard. Therefore, he offers another type of exercise aiming to reinforce their knowledge about the materials given. Usually, the more teacher gives exercises, the more students understand the materials.

Part III
Conclusion and Suggestion

A. Conclusions

There are two conclusions that I can draw from the description about the Behavioral Model above as presented as follows:

1. Almost the same as Scaffolding proposed by a Russian psychologist, Vygostky, the Behavioral Model that delivers Behaviorism Theory, is a model of learning that can be implemented in the situation where most students in a class are new learners or beginners; that is, those who firstly learn a new language, for example, English. Using the behavioral Model, teacher can motivate them to learn and master the language.
2. To practice this model in teaching and learning process, teacher should be wise because it will take much time and effort to guide beginners to master English. By using repetition and imitation exercises, learners are trained to master many parts of the language being learnt.

B. Suggestions

1. Teacher should prepare the materials for his teaching so that his learners can master he language being learnt.
2. Teacher should be wise to encounter learners difficulties in learning English.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This simple writing is a final task submitted to the Lecturer of The Theories of Language Learning Subject, Prof. Sulis. It consists of three parts: Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion and Suggestion.
As a God creature, in the first I would like to thank to Almighty God for this blessing and invariably help showing during my life, particularly doing this simple paper writing. I also recognize that many people have contributed a lot of ideas to him. Therefore, through this great opportunity, I want to express my gratitude appreciation to some of them as follows:
1. Former lecturer of Theories of Language Learning Subject, Prof. A. Maryanto, Ph.D (the late) who has poured on my mind many current theories of language learning which, I think, are very important to support my study.
2. Prof. Sulis, the successor of Prof. Maryanto, who has assigned me, including my classmates, to write a simple paper related the theories of language learning. This assignment is a motivator for me to write in English and it is viewed a great chance for me to improve my ability in English.
3. My classmates who have, by their unique attitude, supported me to learn together from day to day and I feel, I am really at home with them because we can share our knowledge and experiences each other.
Finally, I should state that I do not have much money to pay back their sacrifice. I just pray to God to bless and protect them.
REFERENCES

Ahmadi, A. and Joko Tri Prasetya. 1997. Strategi Belajar Mengajar untuk Fakultas Tarbiyah, Komponen MKDK. Bandung: Pustaka Setia.

Buchori, M. 1995. Transformasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan and IKIP Muhammadiyah Press.

Purwanto, M. N. 1994. Ilmu Pendidikan Teoritis dan Praktis. Bandung: Rosdakarya.

Rusyan, A. T, et. al. 1989. Pendekatan dalam Proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung: Remadja Karya.

Siagian, S. P. 1994. Filsafat Administrasi. Jakarta: Haji Masagung.

Soetjipto and Raflis Kosasi. 2004. Profesi Keguruan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.

Suhartono. 2008. Filsafat Pendidikan. Jogjakarta: Ruzz Media.

Tilaar, H. A. R and Riant Nugroho. 2008. Kebijakan Pendidikan, Pengantar untuk Memahami Kebijakan Pendidikan dan Kebijakan Pendidikan sebagai Kebijakan Publik. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.

Tilaar, H. A. R. 2001. Manajemen Pendidikan Nasional, Kajian Pendidikan Masa Depan. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya Offset.

Tirtarahardja, U. and La Sula. 2000. Pengantar Pendidikan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.

Usman, M. U. 1995. Menjadi Guru Profesional. Bandung: Rosda Karya Offset.

Salkind, N. J. 1985. Theories of Human Development, second edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Brown. H. D. 2001. Teaching by Principles, An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, Second edition. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

*POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM, ENGLISH STUDIES PROGRAM, SEMARANG STATE UNIVERSITY, SEMARANG

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATIVE METHOD

The following is an example of proposal written by my student coming from Timor Leste, a former student of Untim (East Timor University) in Dili. I have revised her proposal and it has been a thesis. She was very smart when she defended her thesis examination. This publication wants to help you to write in English. If you need, you may copy it as a starting point for you to write. Or, if you want to copy it, don’t forget to write her name and title of her proposal.
Anselmus Sahan
Lecturer of Writing and Literature
Timor University, Kefamenanu, Timor, East Nusa Tenggara Province




The following is an example of proposal written by my student coming from Timor Leste, a former student of Untim (East Timor University) in Dili. I have revised her proposal and it has been a thesis. She was very smart when she defended her thesis examination. This publication wants to help you to write in English. If you need, you may copy it as a starting point for you to write. Or, if you want to copy it, don’t forget to write her name and title of her proposal.
Anselmus Sahan
Lecturer of Writing and Literature
Timor University, Kefamenanu, Timor, East Nusa Tenggara Province






THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATIVE METHOD IN BUILDING UP SPEAKING ABILITY TO THE THIRD YEAR STUDENDS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE OF SMU NEGERI 3 DILI
IN THE SCHOOL YEAR OF 1998/1999


PROPOSAL

Presented to the English Study Program as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan


















NAME : AMALIA RODRIGUES XIMENES
NIM : 94 030 912
NIRM : 94.8.117.51.31.2.5.0004



ENGLISH STUDY PROGRAM
FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION
TIMOR UNIVERSITY
KEFAMENANU
2008


THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATIVE METHOD IN BUILDING UP SPEAKING ABILITY TO THE THIRD YEAR STUDENDS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE OF SMU NEGERI 3 DILI
IN THE SCHOOL YEAR OF 1998/1999

PROPOSAL

Presented to the English Study Program as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan


By
NAME : AMALIA RODRIGUES XIMENES
STUDENT NUMBER : 94 030 912


ENGLISH STUDY PROGRAM
FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION
TIMOR UNIVERSITY
KEFAMENANU
2008


Kefamenanu, May 2008

Approved by


Main Advisor Associate Advisor

Drs. Anselmus Sahan Drs. Edmundus Bouk


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all the writer would like to express her deepest gratitude to the Almighty God who has given her a lot of possibilities that motivate her to finalize her proposal writing. She believes that the God’s Holly Spirit has been poured down on some people’s thought. Therefore, she would like to address her deepest thanks to some of them as follows:

Drs. Anselmus Sahan, her main advisor, and Drs. Edmundus Bouk, her associate advisor, who have led him to make her best future and prospective way to finalize this proposal writing;
Imanuel Kamlasi, S.Pd, Head of English Study Program, who has permitted her to write this proposal and spent much time to discuss the substance of this writing;
All lecturers of English Study Program who have filled him with a lot of knowledge and experiences in order to help her master on English, particularly speaking skill; and
All her friends in the English Study Program who have accompanied her from the beginning until the end of this proposal writing.
She acknowledges that this simple writing is full of errors. As an imperfect human being, she will welcome to suggestions, criticisms and revisions in order that this proposal can meet the need of those who wants to read this writing. However, she still believes that in its simplicity, it is expected to offer a great deal of beneficial information that might help readers to understand the discussion of the substance of this proposal and to conduct the same research.

Kefamenanu, May 2008

The Writer

TABLE OF CONTENTS


TITLE PAGE ……………………………………………………………….
APPROVAL SHEET ……………………………………………………….
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ………………………………………………….
TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………..

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION …………………………………………
1.1. Background of the Study ……………………………………….
1.2. Statement of the Problems ……………………………………..
1.3. Objectives of the Study ………………………………………...
1.4. Significance of the Study ………………………………………
1.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study …………………………….
1.6. Structure of the Writing ………………………………………..

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ………………...
2.1. English as a Foreign Language …………………………………….
2.2. Teaching English as a Foreign Language ………………………….
2.3. Reviewing Techniques and Methods of Teaching …………………
2.4. EFL Materials for Senior High Schools (SMA) …………………...
2.5. Subskill Theories of TEFL …………………………………………


CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ………………………………...
3.1. Research Design ……………………………………………………
3.2. Population and Subject of the Study ……………………………….
3.3. Instrument ………………………………………………………….
3.4. Procedure of the Study ……………………………………………..
3.5. Technique for Data Analysis ………………………………………
3.6. The Technique of Testing the Hypothesis …………………………
3.7. Techniques for Analysis of Oral Test ……………………………...

BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………..
APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………...


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ii
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iv

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4
4
5
5
6

7
7
7
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
People who have been living in the same area would have some tendencies in using a language as a tool of communication. On the other hand, language has a social need, which people would have a philosophy of life in which it identifies their cultural background. It is also a considerable factor of social needs and a symbolic tool of communication of number of population. In viewing the above mentioned idea, Richard R. D. (1993: 234) stated that, the language is a crucial factor, which people use to communicate with another people from different cultural background. Meanwhile, human beings have a unity in a small community, and it has norm as their ethnic code of life since they consider language as a strong part of their identity to stand among others. Language itself has worked as a new primary symbol of definition of affiliation to social groups in different rank of life in a civilized society.
Linguistically, the most popular language scientists have actively explored to update language itself either in written or in spoken forms of language since it was viewed as the proportional activity to run all national programs, such as social, economic, politic and education. Among the national programs, education is the primary key to be implemented to exterminate all illiteracies existing in one country. Therefore the government has tried to empower its society through learning English that has been officially adopted as an obligatory subject to be taught from secondary schools up to Universities. So, English has officially being taught under the National Curriculum accordingly. Consequently, all materials for teaching the senior high school students are mainly expected to reflect its national curriculum syllabus, which gives social formulation of its society. In line with the fact above, Sutrisno stated that statistically a spoken language result tested of English, produced from different language users, has different amounts and types of English test results which would be sorted out as break down by hypothesis on the basis of one tailed-test level of 0.05%.
Jack R. Day (1992: 137) assumed that language is universally accepted to characterize the diversities of human being, in which it would be demonstrated through their speaking performance from different language users. Particularly language itself is an affiliation of social context of people, who would have to share a similar cultural background. In this connection, learning a new language means learning to embrace a new culture of people, who are instinctively making an effort to communicate with people who are from different cultural background.
Teaching process is a part of education, which is officially promulgated for all schools as their main activities. Contentedly, this teaching process is being committed as under the discretionary of Department of Education. While all the activities of teaching learning processes are pedagogically absolutely under the control of its Ministerial Department of Education.
Otherwise, it should be advised that education is the key only for the successful of all activities run under the government authority for the future of its nation wisdom. Unfortunately, education is the most social vigor to run all social aspects may each social group has to maintain their prestige in the environment. Therefore, in teaching learning process, all teachers are expected to design materials on the basis of national syllabus as one discretionary of its school.
It could be a ware that teaching activity is a philosophy and a fundamental of pedagogy. Basically, the objective of teaching English is normally confronted with two pillars. This mater tends to justify that there would have any obstacles which will be absolutely encountered by the two sides: teachers and students. Exactly, students are not well encouraged to learn English as a foreign language. On the other hand, teachers are absolutely confronted with a critical situation to adopt a method in which it is conditionally used to teach English as a foreign language.
However, both teachers and students in a communicative classroom are presently engaged in communicative class. In this case, teachers are subsequently served as the proportional responsibility in the classroom. It gives a brainstorm that, the method adopted promptly reflects the students different cultural background and the language used in their daily conversation. In order to facilitate classroom discussion of English teaching, based on the writer experience when conducting a Field Familiarization Program or Practice Teaching, she tried to establish a dialogue which emphasized on the daily conversation. As fact, it did not enable the students to interact such as a thing. Those students came from various vernacular languages in Indonesia, and mostly from East Timor, Java, West Timor, Bali and others from the rest of Indonesia.
Based on the problems above, she would like to conduct a study entitled THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATIVE METHOD IN BUILDING UP SPEAKING ABILITY TO THE THIRD YEAR STUDENDS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE OF SMU NEGERI 3 DILI IN THE SCHOOL YEAR OF 1998/1999.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The problems of this study are stated as follows:
1.2.1. Is there any significant change of Communicative Method in building the student speaking ability of SMUN 2 Dili?
1.2.2. Do the IPS1 students (Experimental Class) achieve better speaking ability than IPS4 (Control Class)?
1.3. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are stated as follows:
1.4.1. To verify whether there is any significant change of Communicative Method in building the student speaking ability of SMUN 2 Dili.
1.4.2. To find out whether the experimental class achieve better speaking ability than control class.
1.4. Significance of the Study
This study will be significantly different from others based on the three procedures described as follows:
1.5.1. If will absolutely inform the significant differences of the scores between experimental class and control class caused by the use of particular method “Communicative Method” to the experimental class.
1.5.2. After the pre-test for both classes ends, this study will be considered significant after the assessment of the discussion and data analysis.
1.5.3. Theoretically, this study will be considered valid on the use of experimental method to the experimental class which is regarded as a special class of this study than control one in which it is applied a conventional method only. It will be presumed in which, after the calculation of the scores, the scores gained are balanced or 0.95%. It then indicates that the method utilized is successful in teaching speaking to the experimental class of class IPS of SMUN 2 Dili in the school year of 1998/1999.
1.5. Scope and Limitation
The sustainable research of collecting the data of this study will be performed only to the following scopes and limitation :
1.5.1. Unfortunately, scope of this study is limited only to the effectiveness of teaching speaking ability for the third year students of SMUN 2 Dili in the school year of 1998/1999.
1.5.2. In connection with the above mentioned scopes, this study is limited only to the two classes which randomly selected thirty students, who, are out of the two classes without seeing the genders.
1.5.3. In accomplishing this writing this study is limited only to the one of the priority of the method applying to experimental class (group) which, called experimental method.
1.6. Structure of the Writing
Systematically, this study consists of three chapters. Chapter one, Introduction, covers Background of the Study, Statement of the Problems, Objectives of the Study, Significance of the Study, Scope and Limitation, and Structure of the Writing. Chapter two, Review of Related Literature comprises Teaching of English as a Foreign Language, etc. And chapter three, Research Method, consists of Research Design, Subject of the Study, Instrument, Procedures of the Study, Techniques of Data Analysis, Techniques of Testing the Hypothesis and Techniques of Oral Test Analysis.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. English as a Foreign Language
In reviewing the scientific Teaching of English language as a Foreign Language (TFEL), linguistically there some theories such as references, which is output for both sides teacher and students. In at theory of competitive language learner, which described by Herbert W. Seliger, at al. (1979: 77) who, had longest traveling to explore and observing language learning teaching (English in Brazilian) stated that there are some aspects of language learning in the classroom faced by students. However, English as a foreign language in a far of the origin of the country, such as quoted by Herbert W.
“In fact, the data reveals out an error on my part of English language test, which the result of the English test I have noticed Apparently, I am saying that this test is profoundly to calculate The destination of way of teaching is effective or …. (p..76)”.
Linguistically, there would be some theories based on the references described as the phenomenon of some language experts who, extremely vigor for the development of the languages in twenty century.
2.2. Teaching English as Foreign Language (TEFL)
Consequently, based on the linguistic background of the foreign language learners it can be implied that there would be two factors in teaching learning process of English language itself. According to Martin, Magers (1978: 136) and quoted by Herbert W. Seliger (1979: 69), linguistically there are intrinsic and extrinsic, these factors emerged while it’s caused by the ambition of the students who, are publicly produced which are not well-learned although the language itself is rarely spoken by the foreign language learners in certain countries.
In Correlation with the above described mater, Herbert W. 1979, stated that obviously it can be supported teachers are as non-native spoken English teachers. Otherwise, in language classes it not usual for students to be called upon to perform during the early stages of language learning. On the other hand, Richard R. Day (1986: 128) said that frequently teacher of a foreign language learning must be as the model for language interaction for the second language acquisition. To emphasis it Herbert et al (1979: 197).
“a willingness to allow the child to structure with the language in traction may be critical to be successful of language acquisition”
In response to the both students and teachers, who are well motivated in respect to the level of methodology, it could be justified for specific speaking exercise and techniques that will be used in the course. Ideally the techniques, classroom activities, and task which forms the methodology of teaching different language skills should be designed by the teachers. Richard (1989: 9) said that, the materials designed should be perceived by the learner as a means toward an and, not merely as end in themselves. In line with the above quotation, pedagogically there two phenomena of teaching English in respect to the theory of the following quotation ….
“Features of Teachers Verbal Activity beyond the basic attempt to make a content of compressible and successful of teaching activity beyond both teacher and students”….
Richard R. Day (1986: 139) as implementation of this activity, herewith there are be techniques and methods requested for the implementation of the experimental method that selected to guarantee of the successful of teaching learning process off English itself a second language acquisition. Otherwise, there are some techniques which scientifically under-described.
2.3. Reviewing Techniques and Methods of Teaching
As a preliminary designing, in which stated techniques and methods are scientifically described before the writing process started based on the imagination which must be the main resource for this writing. Complementary prospective of teaching English as a foreign language, it will be a significant features of teaching and learning process.
In patterns drill to transform an exercise, the writer derives techniques and methods to increase the frequency of over made up generalized structures to establish spoken English ability. The selected techniques are designed to pretend creating the classroom language classroom, where English is being studied for more general purpose, its expected to derive the following procedures.
Firstly, technique which is precisely described on the basis of influencing and monitoring on language learning. It might be said, that technique is a linguistics dimension of such task of a controller in monitoring as activity which is done another. Primarily, as regarded the classroom’s activity, teaching techniques are designed by language curriculum syllabus theory, which underlined is speaking skill (the writer). (Mumby 1974, Yalden 1983, quoted by Richard (1985: 8), language teaching syllabus designed is an aspect of curriculum activity that depends upon finding in areas of applied linguistics research.
Under the description of the above quotation, with the consolidation of all the elements involved, it tries to figure out some scientific perceptions throughout the applied linguistic skills. Scientifically, with the involving of the nature of second language acquisition items, the writer would like to present the syllabus procedures such as follows:ability to read a reading speed of 350 words per minute, ability to infer the meanings of unknown words from, ability to identify rhetorical structure of paragraph and ability to distinguish between facts, evident, Richard (1989: 85).
Through applied linguistics view point Richard (1989: 89) said, in a language teaching program, these applied linguistics skills are vital to distinguish and assess the language learning achievements. On the other hand, these skills would be identified as crucial phase evaluation of language tests in the classroom, the simple used.
Secondly, due to the hypothesized calculation can be considered successful to the degree, which these above mentioned subjects of the study are valid, if these phases are fulfilled, Richard (1985: 9). These phases are intended to clarify as follows: (a) Monitors, due the teaching process in order to ensure the system words sheets, and (b) Determines which phases of the system need adjustment when problems are detected.
Regarding to the two phases are above mentioned, the crucial of the evaluation and the role the language tests is vital in the assessment of achievement. Otherwise, result of language teaching and language learning is accomplished, if the its procedures included ,…..(Long, 1983) quoted by Richard (1985: 10), argued that: (a) analysis of the system through which the program is delivered to determine, if tie represent the optional structuring of tome, resource, learners, teachers, and materials, and (b) analysis of the goal and objectives of the program to see of they relevant and attainable.
2.4. EFL Materials for (SMU) Senior High School Students
As regards with the linguist’s view point which a scientific language learning treated that English language itself as a foreign language learning for whom it may concern as non-native English students. In this study, it may have well appreciated if the materials are well designed particularly on the basis of second language learner’s linguistic competence. However, successful language, Richard (1985: 63)…….
“May be linguistically described in using the observable data or output which result from the speakers’ attempt to produce a foreign norms which fully developed a foreign language code …..by learners….”
As regards in this research study (Namser, 1971) quoted by Richard (1985: 65) second language learning proposed by contrastive analysis theory, which saw language transfer as the central process involved in foreign language learning.
As an evidence transfer from the first language, children who, acquire English as second language learning consequently restricted to perform with the spoken English in his daily communication. Naturally, a successful of language learning itself, its generated a difference perception of aspects of language learning. Both language teaching and language learning will be strictly tried on the National Curriculum (In Indonesia). However, it should be concern to language teaching syllabuses, which derived from contrastive analysis of the native speakers and target language system.
As sample or questioners applied, which it will be analyzed for the learners errors in using questions: When Jane coming?, What Jane doing?, What he saying?
Naturally learner’s language system, which applied linguistics concept of errors analysis, apparently, was initially as application concepts derived from linguistics theory. In line with the linguistics view point, the language curriculum development, they are closely related to the following process and activities, Richard (1985: 6): determining the needs of particular groups of learners, developing objectives for language course, selecting teaching and learning activities, and evaluating the outcome.
Regard to the above mentioned, in Indonesia in which English is not Communicatively used, it shall be requested might be still having a significant role to play with a spoken form in a distinctive scope learning English language itself. There will be two sides related to teaching learning process as follows :
a. Teacher’s Side
Herewith, teachers are suggested to behave as the interaction for the second language acquisition. Teacher is constantly assessed at the language teaching process, which resulted from the teachers side. Apparently, such as a teacher is be expected to design and select particular teaching techniques or materials should be on the basis of learner’s ability and language competence where they are being considered as second language learners. Consequently, students are hoped to be able to apply with all materials transmitted.
b. Student’s Side
In accomplish this study, students are advised to perform with all classroom activities effectively. The expectation of the successful of language teaching and language learning requested to result a crucial phase of the evaluation and vital students achievements. Profoundly, students are able to use English vocabulary of more than sixty (60) words every week.
As regard to the above argument, naturally, the unique character of the competitive language learners can be characterized to distinguish another social requires which habitually possessed by the non-native speakers. As the implication, when students are having some obstacles while they go to the foreign language school as the language acquisition.
2.5. Sub-Skills Theories of TEFL
Do the analytical units which I (The writer) would like to describe whether teaching process has caused an effective means result? Linguistically, as suggested by Richard (1985: 128), that it might be sub-skills theories of socio linguists under described … Cognitive, Phonetics approach, Language Competence, Language Acquisition and Language Proficiency.
Lexically, these are the language cognitive terms suggested to determine all aspects of education. Pedagogic view points, teachers are treated as mentor for the language program itself in the language curriculum. Pedagogically suggested by Richard (1987: 131), theoretically described some language behavior and profoundly quoted by Baraja and Sahan, (1975: 12) who, rested in 1976 Ministerial Decree of the Educational and Cultural Department of Indonesia in which considered and officially declared that teaching of English as a foreign language, although as obligatory subjects.
In connection with the above mentioned linguistics theories, it can be assumed that, who study language pertinent to syllabus designed in two ways of social dimension. First, since disciplines of studying the nature of language had certain goals explanation of the nature of the language itself. By looking the disciplines, it can be described pragmatic functions as follows: Linguistics, Psycholinguistics, and Socio-linguistics.
Within trends of linguistics theories, however learner who, tend to learn vocabulary has never aroused the same degree, which interest to language teaching. Richard (1985: 178) illustrated that in order to recognize the English language expression English words itself, teaching English words itself, teaching English as an international case. In case of learning a language, commonly a case of relationships across language Jack C. illustrated particular semantic categories as: Cure, Calm Down, and Soothe, which called idiosyncrasy.
These are considered as scientific analysis, which Richard said … although the result of the grammatical case are useful, we do not as yet have a pedagogic grammar of English on the basis of the approach. Under this specific study of how the second language learners try to store their spoken language in short term-memory, it can be implied, that since a conversation involves both speaker and hearer. Unfortunately, the interaction is established, while the referents of cohesive makers are going to result any conversional expression are as follows: (1) Is it possible?, (2) Are you pleased with the result?, and ( 3) How is it going on?
…..These are the social requires which sated by (Brown 1977) and quoted by Richard (1986: 65). In relevant to the above description by Richard, it can be relevant that the application of the experimental method is normally used for the non native English speakers. Nevertheless, the teacher also tries to seek the suitable materials for the beginners students, which it can create the classroom climate be more stable.


CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOD
3.1. Research Design
As we are were that, in gathering the data if this study, the writer carried out the control-type experimental design and use simple-Randomized in order to gather the data from both classes of experimental class and control class, which the collected focuses on language area of students speaking ability. In reviewing the method, Sutrisno Hadi, whose book of methodology of research (1990;p.275) stated that prior to teaching learning process implemented, two classes were given the same pretest which is simultaneously done of the same instruments. After that, the treatment has been applied only to the experimental class for more that three months of period. Otherwise, the other class is only being controlled for the same period of time, while post test is going to be applied for both classes in the same time. Finally, the amount of learning will be shown by the mean of differences between the pre-test and post test, Richard R. day (1986;p.189).
In testing the significance of the means difference, the writer used the-test, while the score achieved by the test calculation is compared to t-table with the purpose of knowing whether the differences will be statistically or not. I, e. if it is probable a real difference or it might be the result of the variation, (Lado, 1977;383). Whereas, for the control group the trends to use conventional method. On the other hand, the materials will be the same type designed.
3.2. Population and Subject of the Study
Generally this study takes place in one of the senior high school in Dili, which it fulfills the criteria of the writer where the data will be collected as well. Within the procedures stated there will be classified as follows.
3.2.1. Population of the Study
Population of this study will be the students of SMU 2 of the third year students who, will be out of all the population on the basis of preparation designed. However there will be classes of the third year students, which they are IPS 1 as the experimental class and IPS4 as the school year of 1997/1998. Scientifically, Richard R. Day (1986;p.314), argued that a population such as alternative subjects, which treated as research subjects for a writing paper.
3.2.2. Subject of Study
On line with the criteria stated prior to it the subjects of this study consist two which covered 15 students for each group. Richard R. Day (1986;p.320), argued subjects are out of all population who, randomly selected without genders discrimination. Subjects of the study, for the effectiveness of teaching and learning process there will be thirty (30) students which classified into two groups of test where the first class has fifteen students as for experimental class and second class has fifteen students as for control class.
a. Experimental class, which it is being applied with the experiment type method.
b. Control class, which it is being controlled without the treatment. These two classes above mentioned, they are defectively out two which they were from IPS1 and IPS4
3.3. Instrument
Upon the description of the methodology itself, this study will be involved. Teacher and students as the main subject matter to be discussed. Then all language items which it concert to the speaking ability will be automatically consolidated together as instrument of this study. Technically, the instrument together the data requested from the language items or language elements itself, with respect students potentialities to pronounce English expression of daily conversation. The language items design for the test are a; daily expression, language styles, vocabulary, any grammatical construction in respects of the language itself as foreign language. These all the language items were combined into two types namely; retelling stories and questioners for oral interview if to identify the students personal background. To test the students speaking ability, we provided them a simple passage of dialogue to perform I front of the class, while two students are indicated who one will be as guest and another one of the Hotel in Dili. Properly, they (students) were provided with a special topics that currently going on in their environment, which the English is rarely spoken.
3.4. Procedure of the Study
In connection with this study, the writer derives some techniques are as follows:
3.4.1. Techniques of Data Gathering
It seems to have been widely described in the present teaching of my practice teaching has a strongly motivated constituency endorsed by my faculty of education, so necessary resource will be effectively collected to set off the teaching learning method of English itself as an international collected to set off the teaching learning method of English itself as an international language. The resources will be roughly chooses throughout the arrangement of control type experimental method, in which both classes are also treated in difference using of technique. This technically cohesive data will be mostly collective by covering all language items, which it is focused on the English speaking ability. In view with the technical arrangement, this study begins with the pre-test and follows up with teaching learning process activity within three months of period. Finally it will be ended with post-test and intensively following by data collecting and other techniques assignments are such as follows.
3.4.1.1. Written Test
Apparently this written test is arrangement into two types in view with the criteria of the method stated, which called pre-test and post-test. Obviously will be initially done which it is previously applied before the treatment. Then, post-test will be applied done both classes, naturally both pre-test are simultaneously arranged for both classes.
3.4.1.2. Oral Test and Interview
Linguistically as Nick Underhill in this third addition (1987;p.102) broke down two types of oral test are such as follows:
a. Retelling a story from written form of passage, which recognized as task and carried out for this technique. Technically students are provided with a short story reading passage the they are being asked to retell sentences for immediately recording.
b. Questions and answer. In view with the technical arrangement, this typically technique consist of series of disconnected question which is graded up by difficulties sentences. Firstly, it starts with short sentences even simple question to motivate all students for the text questions, then following by the complex questions sentences, Nick underhill (1987;p.61). Methodologically, the data will be matched by written test by standard deviation in order to know the improvements caused by the treatment for experimental class.
The data is absolutely recorded in the cassette. This way is originally motivated this study, whether an approach combined prospective of both learners and observes (the writer) or not …. Nick, underhill (1987;p.78).
“….ability to understand the rhetorical structures and paragraph”.
3.4.2. Controlled Factors
in language teaching program, which it achieves its objectives can be considered successful. If there will be some crucial factors should be controlled and viewed by both teacher and learners as a means to a boarder goal, Nick, underhill (1987;p.110). Regard to it there are some factors that might be responsible for the mean differences for both classes although the control class does not have treatment. Those factors are being controlled, while teaching and learning process is going on as follows :
a. Students culture background
To avoid the discrimination cultural background, the subject were randomly taken out of similar culture but without seeing the learners personal background. It means that the distribution of student from the different cultural was proportional, both in control class and experimental class, Jack, C. Richard (1985;p.189) argued that teaching and learning of English is not only taking place where, English is spoken and cultural background is proportional sensitive factor of language.
b. Commonly, people says that male students are able to do better than female students. In touch with the this statement, the collection of the subjects is randomly taken from the two genders, in order to avoid any classical Nick, Underhill (1987;p.102).
c. Extra curriculum Activities
These activities may disturb concentration, thus it might be kept as minimum as possible. Otherwise, extra activities disturbs students concentration such as folklore and etc.
d. Techniques of teaching
Technically after doing the pre-test, which it is initially done before the treatment. However, teaching and learning process must be done in the morning which strictly to avoid the any interferences are not thinking before. Furthermore, Nick, Underhill (1987;p.94) in teaching and learning process, teachers contributions is also expected to the means differences in order to rise up the effectiveness of teaching of language itself as foreign language.
e. Other extraneous Factors
Other extraneous factors which they can not be controlled, for example, the absence of students because of sickness, plays truant or other disturbances in the classroom that done by the trouble marker students or play truant are commonly happen everywhere. Thus they are not considered as controlled factors.
3.5. Techniques for Data Analysis
After collection of data, technically they were rearranged in order of size for the satisfactory of the means differences. As fact, the following procedures is satisfactory considered when the number of scores is mall or less than 20 or 25 (Grolund, 1981;p.492), quoted by Richard R. Day (1986;p.138), he argued that after all scores, and then dividing this sum by the number of the subjects. This calculation will rearranged by the following formula.

M = Sum of score
Number of Subjects

Furthermore there will be another formula used to calculate the standard deviation of the distance of each score from the means is known as the deviation which reached by subtracting the means from the score. If each of the deviation is squared from the means adding them up and divided the scores by the number of subjects, in order to achieved the square root of standard deviation. Convenient unit helps to compare or measure how far the means of particular score may be. The formula expresses the standard deviation is as follows:

SD= Ö (X – M)2
N

Or the computation can be done in order to find out the scores for the degree of Y1 as well. The formula is as follows :

SD= Ö (Y – M)2
N

Where (SD), the standard deviation, E (X-M)2 is the sum of square of the deviation of each score the mean, and N is the number which repents sum of subjects.
3.6. The Techniques of Testing the Hypothesis
In This study order to know if the hypothesis is accepted or not, the writer uses any statistical rules by operating the t-test (Sutrisno H. 1990;226), He argued that the difference between two means the formula used test the t-test is as follows.

T = MX – MY = Nx + Ny
Ö (X2 + Y2) (1+1)
Nx + Ny – 2
Notes = Mx and My are the means score of the two groups, where X2 and Y2 are the standard deviation and Nx and My are subjects.
The scores achieved from the computation is calculate with the scores in the table in using significance level of 0,05 in the raw of on tailed test. Otherwise, the number of the subjects are only being analyzed two genders as well. The two genders are the sample consist of 30 subjects covered two genders as well. The genders are the proportional sample or significance in the raw of the one tailed where calculation will be result from the t-tables test, (Sutrisno p.221). The means difference is considered significant of the scores from the t-test calculation equals or higher than the scores from the table, the means differences will be significantly showed.
3.7. Techniques for Analysis of Oral Test
In order to know whether students spoken English ability was improved or not, the writer uses traditional mark categories, using the following procedures to break down the language components :
± grammar is out of ten (10) scores
± Vocabulary is marked out of ten (10) scores
± Pronunciation is marked out of ten (10) scores)
± Fluency is marked out of ten (10) scores
± Content is marked out of ten (10) scores
(Nick Underhill, 1987;97).
However, the number of the right is the divided by ten. Statistically, formula is being used to calculate the scores is as follows :

M= Sum of all scores
10
Naturally the scores required from the written the written test will be added up by the sum of the oral test scores, which it is competitively compared. And the scores against each students who, independently did the answer sheets provided through two periods of test which simultaneously doing for both classes of pre-test and post-test.
Notes : M = Means score
T = Score of each student
10 = Sum of the item tested



APPENDIX 1:
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEST ITEMS
NAME :
Class :
Day/ Date :
Time :

1. Materials are used for written test
THE WEATHER
The weather is the condition of the atmosphere at the particular time or place, with respect to heat or cold. Quantity of sunshine, presence or absence of rain, snow, or fog, strength of wind, directions in which the wind is blowing, etc. In connection with the weather, here are some terms you will learn.
Wind is caused by air that flows a place having high pressure to another one with low pressure. When the difference in air pressure is great, the wins is produced in this way is strong. Whereas if he differences is small the wind is weak. A storm is violent enough wind that rotates or constantly directly. It is destructive rotary storm under a could that looks like a water spout which advances in a narrow path for many kilometers.
II. Oral test
a. What is the weather?
b. What is the quaintly of sunshine, presence or absence of rain and snow?
c. What is atmosphere?
d. What is the wind?
e. Is weather the condition of the atmosphere at the particular time or place?
III. The items tested to be recorded
1. What is your foreign favorite language do you want to speak?
2. Are you interested in English as a foreign language?
3. Do you speak English at home?
4. Do you speak English at your school all day?
5. Do you speak English in the classroom, while you English teacher getting?
IV. The items tested for daily expressions
1. How are you?
2. What is your name, please?
3. How old are you?
4. Are you parents still alive?
5. How many brothers and sister do you have?
6. How was your weekend?
7. How were you families at home?
8. Have you ever been to Australia?
9. Have you ever been studying English?
10. How was your sister’s health?
Daily activity, every students expected to prepare the hair own daily activity and try express it in English, as they can….

Formula:
I get up ……….o’clock every morning
I usually have breakfast at ………
And then…………………………..
I always get lunch at …………….
I usually have dinner at………….
I got to bed………………………..


BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ann, Baker. 1996. Introduction to English Pronunciation, A Teacher Guide. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Alexander, L. G. 1987. Practice and Progress. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.
Richard, J. C. 1987. Reading Strategies, Approach to Theory, Methods and Materials Selection of English of Sciences and Technology. Paper Presented to in TEFLIN Seminar, Malang 4-5 February 1993.
Baiky, J. D. 1998. Methods of Social Research. New York: The Free.
Biky, K. M. 1998. An Introspective Analysis on Individual Language Experience. Los Angeles:
Cecil, D. M. 1986. Students with Disabilities. Toronto: Charles E. Mrill Company.
Day, R. R. 1986. Talking to Learn. Massachusetts: New Burry House Publisher, Inc.
Frank, M. 1972. Modern English, Practical Guide. New York: Prentice Hall.
Groundland, E. 1981. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. Fifth Addition.
Howell, G. D. 1982. Statistical Methods for Psychology. Burlington Vermont.
King, M. 1964. A Guide to His Thoughts. Oxford: Basic Well.
Kral, T. 1995. Creative Classroom Activity. Washington D. C.: English Language Division.
Lado, R. 1974. Language, A Scientific Approach. London: Me Grow – Hall.
Martin, P. 1993. Task for Language Teacher, A Research Book for Training and Development of Language. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, P. 1997, English Language and Linguistic Seminar Workshop 24-25 February 1997
Utary, S. S. N. 1991, Bahasa Inggris 2a. Jakarta: Departement Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Underhill, N. 1987. Testing Spoken English. New York: Cambridge University Press.


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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

ANSELMUS SAHAN

To understand discourse analysis, I start with some leading questions. Through those questions, I can get a gateway to go in detail description about discourse analysis, its significance in learning and its programs to help readers or students, including all of us, know more it. In the first part, I raise three questions related the concept of discourse analysis, its unit of analysis, its tools keeping its data base, and the way discourse analysts regard the issue of objectivity-subjectivity and the quantitative-qualitative approaches to data collection and analysis.
The first question I should raise is “What is discourse analysis? Allwright (1991: 61) defines discourse analysis as variety of procedures for examining chunks of language, whether spoken or written. In the case of classroom research, it usually involves the analysis of spoken language as it is used in classrooms among teachers and learners. While Van Lier (1988: 22) describes it as an analysis of the process of interaction by means of a close examination of audiovisual records of interaction. However, in fact, it deals with many analytical processes, from coding and quantification to more qualitative interpretations.



What do discourse analysts typically examine as units of analysis, and what do they use as their data base? Discourse analysts typically use transcripts and audiotaped or video-taped interactions as their data base.
What is meant by “transcript”, and how important is it in discourse analysis? Transcript is written record of interaction in which researcher copies down, verbatim, the utterances of the participants. In fact, transcripts vary widely in their level of technical complexity. They may use standard orthography or detailed phonetic representations of speech, depending on the research goal. They are important in discourse analysis because, they show us, in ways that coded data and frequent count often mask, how classroom interaction develops, as a dynamic phenomenon. Therefore, many classroom researchers prefer to conduct discourse analyses with detailed transcripts, rather than using other data collection procedures which may be easier to do, but which also run the risk of obscuring important information.
And the last question is “How do discourse analysts regard the issue of objectivity-subjectivity and the quantitative-qualitative approaches to data collection and analysis?” Discourse analysts regard the issues of objectivity-subjectivity in term of collecting and recording classroom data. For example: In constructing such instruments, researchers distinguish between ‘low inference’ and ‘high inference’ categories of analysis. Low inference categories include things that can be counted or coded without the observer having to infer very much, while high inference demand that the observer make a judgment that goes well beyond what is immediately visible. In addition, discourse analysts regard the issues of quantitative-qualitative approaches to data collection and analysis as ways to analyze data that have been gathered or collected. The data can be quantified, as when an observer counts the frequency of certain behaviors (hand raising, for instance) or when researcher uses learners’ test scores as an outcome measure in a process-product study. After quantifying the qualitative data, researchers can easily count, analyze and interpret the data.

In the second part, I expose five questions related to five ranks of classroom discourse according to Sinclair and Coulthard, two analytical levels and its contain, types of move identified by Bellack (1966) and Fanselow (1977), kinds of acts constitute each move, and specific areas of L2 discourse analysis suggested by Chaudron (1977) and Tsui (1985).
The five ranks of classroom discourse according to Sinclair and Coulthard are lesson, transaction, exchange (boundary and teaching), move (opening, answering, follows-up, framing, and focusing), and act.
What are the two analytical levels, and what does each level contain? The two analytical levels of discourse are the linguistic level of sentential analysis and social/ pedagogical level of programs and courses. The discourse level is comprised of five ranks (lesson, transaction, exchange, move and act), each of which constitutes the elements of the rank, according to rank-specific structural rules. While social/pedagogical level consists of various structures, which are realized by “acts,” each having a specific discourse function.
How many types of move are identified by Bellack (1966) and Fanselow (1977), and what are they called? There are five types of move: opening move, answering move, follows-up move, framing move, and focusing move.
What kinds of acts constitute each move, and how are they further classified? Head act and adjunct act constitute each element of move and are further classified into three kinds: head, pre-head and post-head acts.
What are the specific areas of L2 discourse analysis suggested by Chaudron (1977) and Tsui (1985)? Briefly explain five of them! They are structural units (consisting of utterance, turn, turn-unit, communication unit, and fragment) and functional units (covering repetition, expansion, clarification request, comprehension check, confirmation check, repair, and model). Utterance is a string of speech by one speaker under a single intonation contour, and preceded and followed by another speaker’s speech, or a pause of more than x seconds. Turn is any speaker’s sequence of utterances bounded by another speaker’s speech. Turn-unit is any syntactic main clause and its associated subordinate clauses. Communication unit is an independent grammatical prediction; the same as a Turn-unit, except that in oral language, elliptical answers to questions also constitute complete predications. Fragment is any utterance which does not constitute a completed proposition (i.e., which explicit subject and verb).
In the last part, I address ten questions covering three reasons why a study of turn taking is significant in L2 research, four basic principles of turn taking and its principle, the ways turns can be classified on the basis of their functional distinction, some terms related turn taking, concept of topic as used in discourse analysis, topic regarded as a unit of analysis and as part of a discourse process, topic and activity, the importance of repair in learner’s language development, and kinds of actions or ideas covered by the broadly-defined repair.
Give three reasons why a study of turn taking is significant in L2 research! First, classroom activities are determined by the forces (usually the teacher, but also tacit norms of classroom conduct) that govern allocation of turns elaborating control over proceeding, including topics and types of activities, that co-occurs and coincides with control over turn taking. Second, under a rigid control situation of teacher, learners will not able to explore the ways in which speaker change is effected through turn taking in the target language. Consequently, they can not practice vital skills involved in interacting in the target language. And third, the conversational turn-taking organization provides ‘an intrinsic motivation for listening’. In its turn-allocational techniques, the turn-taking system for conversation builds in an intrinsic motivation for listening to all utterances in a conversation, independent of other possible motivations, such as interest and politeness.
Based on the three situations above, I can say that observation in L2 classroom activities contains three reasons. Firstly, the chances of learning language are greatly improved if the learners pay close attention and comprehension to the language they hear around them. Secondly, it is also a great chance for less attention and competent learners to learn form their friends or mates and/or follow he ways their teacher motivates them to pay attention and involve seriously in turn-taking activities that finally may improve their ability. And thirdly, conversational turn-taking forces participants to be actively involved, and to plan and structure their contribution in contextually appropriate and acceptable ways.
What are the four basic principles of turn taking and what is each principle particularly about? The four basic principles of turn taking are transition, distribution, prominence, and initiative. Transition particularly covers turn progression and turn size; distribution particularly deals with speaker selection and allocation; prominence is about the status of a turn as attended-to-action; and initiative correlates with voluntary (i.e. actor-originated) participation in the goings on. In practical level, initiative is used by the would-be-next speaker, or else the next speaker has been selected through turn allocation. Prominence is obtained, either by virtue of initiative, or through loudness, or non –verbal behaviour, or other attention-getting factors. The turn is proceeding now, initiative and prominence having been achieved. Its rough length is staked out, if necessary by projecting the various chunks, turn claims are countered by turn-claim suppression signals; the focus is on orderly progression, working towards orderly transition. And turn is coming to an end and, if appropriate, content and/or speaker of next turn are indicated.
How can turns be classified on the basis of their functional distinction? By the dynamics of speaker change in an interaction. The turns can be classified into four ways:
Prospective is the way the turn is linked (through turn-taking devices) to (the) subsequent turn(s). The turn influences the subsequent turn(s) by constraining content, or by delimiting next speakership.
Retrospective is the way the turn is linked (through turn-taking devices) to (the) proceeding turn(s).
Concurrent is a turn that is taken during a current turn which is related to that turn in a servicing sense.
Neutral is a turn which indeterminate as prospective, retrospective, and concurrent, and which is not implicative of prospective or retrospective relations to its surrounding turns.
Explain each of the following terms: nominating, giving way, floor seeking, intra-turn repair, and rehearsal!
Nominating is a subpart of allocating prospective which verbally selects a next speaker by giving a name description or pronoun (“you here’).
Giving way is subpart of allocating prospective which occurs when a speaker stops short before the projected completion of his/her turn in order to give way to competition, i.e. when another speaker has ‘interrupted’ or as a result of simultaneous starts.
Floor seeking or self-selecting is subpart of allocating prospective which occurs when a participant begins a turn during another speaker’s turn.
Intra-turn repair/repair-initiation is a subpart of allocating prospective which, together with listening responses, occurs during a turn and is related to the current turn in a subservient capacity. Intra-turn repair/repair-initiation includes brief requests for clarification, replacements of errors, and also instances of prompting and helping.
Rehearsal together with private turns may comment on other (concurrent or preceding) turns or use items in them for personal trial purposes. Comments may also be addressed to another (usually neighbouring) learner or a small subset of learner, relating to the main business of the moment or to other business, usually delivered in a soft voice.
What is your understanding of the term “topic” as is used in discourse analysis? Topic is a unit of analysis of discourse which covers what is involving doing and what it is about. In daily interaction, it can be found that every interaction can be characterized into two basic ways: what kind of activity it is, i.e. what it involves doing, and what it is about, i.e. topic.
Topic can be regarded as a unit of analysis and as part of a discourse process. Explain the difference! In second language classroom research, topic is viewed from two ways: as a unit of analysis and as part of discourse process. In the first sense, a lesson can divided into topics in the same way that a conversation can be divided into topics. For example, the topics of a lesson might be the homework, a dialogue about asking the way, a presentation of Wh-questions, pair work using a map of the city, a role play at the airport, etc. While a unit of analysis is a subpart of a discourse process which deals with the subdivision parts of a discourse process. In other words, topic consists of some units of analysis and the units of analysis as parts of discourse constitute the existence of discourse process.
Do you think topic and activity are dependent or independent on one another? Give your reason! Both are dependent on one another. First, topic is the realization of the question what it is about, while activity answers the question of what involves in doing something. Seen form this relationship, it seems that activity is the application of topic. And second, in a conversation, the activity of ‘small talk’ limits severely the range of issues that can be used for topics, and this will vary considerably across cultures and social groups.
How is “repair” important in the learner’s language development? By identifying and repairing the learner’s errors in learning the target language. The learner’s errors are data that show to the teacher and/or researcher about the learner’s discrepancies in learning a foreign language and that they have to repair the errors so that the learner may experience progress in her/his foreign or target language learning.
What kinds of actions or ideas may be covered by the broadly-defined “repair”? The broadly-defined “repair” at least covers three ideas: error correction, treatment of trouble occurring in interactive language use, and problems of speaking, hearing, and understanding the talk.
Repair can be medium-oriented, message-oriented, or activity-oriented. Give an example of each!
Medium-oriented is a kind of repair activities in L2 classroom which focuses on the forms and/or functions of the target language, for example, learners tend to ‘while you have a bath’ instead of “while you were having (taking) a bath’, and ‘and you and you was having a bath’ instead of ‘and you were having a bath’.
Message-oriented is a kind of repair activities in L2 classroom which focuses on the transmission of thoughts, information, feelings, for example: ‘what do you think is the main problem in the future” and the answer is “in the future . . . ‘. It should be answered completely “I’m thinking about a job that can earn much money’. This may be stimulated by his/her teacher and/or friends.
activity-oriented is a kind of repair activities in L2 classroom which focuses on the organization and structure of the classroom environment, rules for the conduct of activities. For example, when a teacher asks student “Ok Joko, how many books am I holding?” The student might be able to count and say ‘four’, for instance, but he is not sure to his own answer. To lead Joko to the right answer, the teacher should mention ‘four’ while asking him whether he agrees with his teacher or not.

REFERENCES
Allwright, D. and K. M. Bailey. 1991. Focus on the language classroom. Cambirdge: Cambirdge University Press.
Chaudron, C. 1988. Second language classrooms: Research on teaching and learning. Cambirdge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. 1992. Research methods in language learning. Cambirdge: Cambirdge University Press.
Runcie, J. F. 1980. Experiencing social research. Ontario: The Dorcey Press.
Sinclair, J. M. and M. Coulthard. 1975. Towards an analysis of discourse. London: Oxford University Press.
van Lier, L. 1988. The classroom and language learner. London: Longman.
Saleh, M. 2008. Enam tradisi besar penelitian pendidikan bahasa. Semarang: Unnes Press.

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Luma

The following is an example of research on Oral Tradition. It is entitled An Analysis of Intrinsic Elements of Luma in Meto Oral Tradition of Bikomi Community. If you want to download it, please but do not forget to write Willibrouds Sanak, the writer of this Thesis. He has devoted his life just to write this Thesis seven months and it was done under my supervision.



CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study
Culture is each activity of which covers a complex, round up knowledge, art, morality, law, religion, habit and all of the capacity and competence, as a result of human performance as a member of one society. It has some characteristics. The first is stability, which is seen in the aspects of tradition, system, and its manner. The second is dynamics. Human always needs another people based on the environment and development. The third is property of society. A culture is a property by society. One person in his own life has private culture. However, it belongs to only a group of society.
It has some types. One of them is religion that contains knowledge related to human need which consists of food, clothes, house, tools, transportation and communications; it also has some souls of religion, knowledge, art and literature. It may appear in the forms like family organization, clan, nation, education, economic, law and ceremony.
According to Koentjaraningrat there are seven elements of culture namely: language, knowledge system, and social organization, tools of systems, livelihood system, religion system and art.
Literature is a work art. It has some characteristics that make it different form another work, such as act, art or painting. However, it has the same meaning with another kinds of art namely to help human to put their secret condition, to give meaning to their existence and to open way to truth. In traditional society, it has a large function in social context.
Viewed from its way to express, literature covers oral literature and written one. Oral literature includes the oral expression about the existence of the member of a culture. It is also one of the forms of tool of communication to express language which plays an important role in traditional society. Through oral literature, society can communicate, bequeath and develop their knowledge and their pattern of life. Oral literature consists of legend, myth, and folklore. Each ethnic group has those kinds of oral literature used to express their existence. In Indonesia oral literature is still alive. One of the myths that still exits is Luma. It is one of the vehicles and still idolized by traditional society in general and Bikomi in special.
Indonesian is known as country having with traditional cultures. One of them is found in Timor Island, especially in North Central Timor Regency covering a lot of traditional ceremonies of Bikomi community. One of them is “Luma”.
In Bikomi community of Maslete there are many local oral traditions and cultures used by the people. One of them is the oral tradition of “LUMA” Maslete is brought around villages namely: Tubuhue, Maslete, Nimasi, and Oenenu.
LUMA is a secret thing that is usually taken out in surrounding places in Bikomi authority. Some years ago, on the summer, the king of Bikomi took water clan and put it into six pails, so the raining comes in some places of Bikomi authority.
The ceremony of LUMA in Bikomi’s authority must be taken out on Friday and it avers village namely: Oemenu, Oelnitep, Naesleu, Oelatasi, Nifu Bikomi and Nisani. At that procession, king of Bikomi takes the water and put it into one bamboo, then LUMA itself should be taken home in the culture house and must be put in the secret steak (Haumonef) to kill animals. In the evening, the kings make the ceremony of the field result (Tama maus).
Based on the diversity of accounts given by other about the culture, the writer is interested in conducting a study entitled LUMA IN METO ORAL TRADITION OF BIKOMI COMMUNITY.

1.2 Statement of the Problems
Based on the explanation in the background above the writer would like to formulate the main problems of this study in forms of questions as follows:
1.2.1 What kinds of value are there in “LUMA” of Meto oral tradition of Bikomi Community?
1.2.2 What kinds of ceremony are done before Luma is proceed?

1.3 Definition of the Terms
In this part, the writer wants to clarify some terms which are used in the title of this study so as to avoid misunderstanding among readers.
1.3.1 LUMA is the traditional ceremony people of Bikomi community, especially Maslete. Magic thing like magic water from the seven spies of water that Bikomi community mention “Oel Mata Hiut”.
1.3.2 Meto oral tradition is a literature that covers the expression of literature of a cultural society speeded and passed on from one generation to another orally, from oral to oral (Suripan, 1983:2).
1.3.3 Bikomi community is a region which inhabited by society of Bikomi which consist of some big tribe which inhabit the area.

1.4 Theoretical Framework
1.7.1 The Meaning of Culture
Lusbetac said that culture is a language which is understood well by creating all creations, it is everything which is studied, like social traditions which are taken over from a cultural group and the form of life from a society including their thinking and feeling. It means that all of the human works are preceded and all results got from their works are called culture. As a concrete manner it is called language, view of belief, morality, all structures of society, and all tools of work, technique, process and values.
While Robert Lowie defined culture as a whole knowledge accepted by an individual from his society that shapes belief, custom and traditions, art, norm and habit about food and skills. It indicates that the whole knowledge is not the result of private work, but forefathers’ ancestors. For the next generations they only become executors, without adding or modifying the result or legacy of their forefathers.
1.7.2 Oral Tradition
There are two forms of literature, namely written literature and oral literature. Written literature is literature that appears in form of printed book or other written one. While oral literature is literature that appears in form of oral story, spread from mouth to mouth.
The term of oral literature has relation with oral tradition. Oral tradition means act of society done in a ceremony, spread from mouth to mouth. While oral literature only refers to the oral text. Oral tradition covers technology, law, custom, dance and traditional food. (Danandjaya, 991: 2-5).
1.7.3 The Meaning of Value
The function of myth is described by C. A. Van Peursen. He states that myth reflects human beings toward the magic power. Through myth, human beings can be hoped to understand the magic power as a source of power that influences and surrounds the environment and life of its race. Myth offers a guarantee now. It means that performing or replaying an event that happened in the past, may happen again now.

1.5 Research Method
1.8.1 Research Design
To order to gain the aim of this writing, the writer used a method or way of working directly according to the object of the research. The method used by the writer in this research is descriptive qualitative research. Qualitative research or naturalistic qualitative research means the presses of connecting data is natural and manipulation of its condition. So the activity of collecting data is made by the researcher with the narrative or native speaker. The method applied in this study is able to analyze the intrinsic structure of “LUMA” of Maslete community and its value.
1.8.2 Subject of the Study
To get the data accurately, the informants are necessary to be selected. It means that the informants have to give information needed exactly. Therefore the writer determined the informants by applying the criteria as follows:
- The informant should have much knowledge related to “LUMA” cultural background and should be in the society.
- The informants should be mole, because they know more about it and influence in society.
- The age of informants is more than 50 years old. In this age, it is believed that, the informant has a full of experience and knowledge about oral literature, particularly the myth of “LUMA”.
1.8.3 Instrument
The instruments that the writer applied research to get data about “LUMA” were oral interview, book note and tape. In the interview he asked the informants to recite “Luma”. What the informants recited, he recorded using a tape recorder and wrote down his instrument are in accordance with Slinger and Shohamy (1997:122) opinion that story. These kinds of data are collected from different sources and with different means such as deservation, interview, and case history and so on.
1.8.4 Procedure of Data Gathering
To get the aims of this writing, the writer collected the data using some techniques as follows:
1. Library research
It is related to reading and studying some books or other recourses related to the study, as secondary information related to the problems being discussed.
2. Field research
It is related to direct interview, to get the information as primary data about myth “LUMA” in a custom house which can’t be indirectly seen, but there is in his thinking.
1.8.5 Technique of Data Analysis
After the writer collected the data, he analyzed using the following will be gathered the steps:
1. The result of the data will be transcribed in the form of publication and translation text.
2. The text of Meto will be translated into Indonesian text; furthermore the text will be translated into English.
3. All the data got were analyzed using the literary theories of intrinsic structure and value.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH AREA
2.1 The Historical Background of Bikomi Community
According to oral tradition and historical fact, Bikomi is farmer kingdom in Timor Island. In the begining Bikomi area did not have yet the name, but for this area, people call it “pah Sarea (Sarea Island), then changed to “Pah Bokimi” (Bikomi Island) originated from a princess that changed her shape to a crocodile. The princess’s name is “Komi” and …. (TOLONG SAMBUNGKAN KALIMAT INI DAN DIAMBIL DARI BAGIAN LAIN PADA BAGIAN BAWAH)
2.2 Bikomi Community
2.2.1 Topography
According geography, Bikomi situated in Kefamenanu, motherland of North Central of Timor Regency. The Kingdom of Bikomi is the part of Atoni ethnic that has typical characteristics of Negritos such as black stain and curly hair.
2.2.2 Large, Location and Boundary
Area of Bikomi is very wide vast, that to covers several villages such Nilulat, Buk, Naibaban, Kuanek, Ba’as, Nimasi, Oenenu, Kiusili, Bioni, Oetarus, Sasi, Niola, Tub Lopo, Ijaoka, Oenino, Muken, Najin, Taloep, Maurisu, Pineol, Usapkole, Mat Bes, Naen, Oelnitep, Nainisa, and Kefamenanu (Maslete, Tubuhue). In North pert, Bikomi border with Tunbaba, in South, it is borders with East Miomaffo district, in East, it borders with Timor Leste, and in West borders with West Miomaffo District.
2.2.3 Means of Livelyhood
Although the condition of Bikomi Community for the agricultural development is not so good, in fact 95% from the people of Bikomi lives from planting (corn, rice, peanut, cassava, sweet potato, cucumber, and ect) and another are civil servant, non goverment, militery and policeman. So, the total of population of Bikomi Community is 12, 365 persons.
2.2.4 Education, Language and Religion
In Bikomi Community, there are some schools like kinder gardens, elementary schools, Junior high schools, and an Univesity. In this community, people always use Uab Meto, although they are influenced by Indonesia language. Uab Meto is often used by old persons. Also has arts namely gong dance, bidut, bonet, and ect, but the roles of these arts have been changed because no people care them.
The population of Bikomi Community is 100% of Chatolic. In practice, some of them still have faith for the mysterious, natural sign. Although Atoni Pah Meto in general Bikomi Community in special still confess to mysterious and natural sign, they are believe in a supreme authority (God) that has authority to create heaven and earth together with its contents.
2.3 Luma in Bikomi Community
Bikomi Communities always trust to Luma as a symbol to receive the blessing. They make this tradition yearly on every February.
Luma is the holy matter for Bikomi community and some others who live in Bikomi. When Luma goes out, everyone who meets it must t sit down, if not he or she can get disaster. If one does not obey to the rule, she/he must go to Sonaf for receiving areca nut and blessing (nsiom manikin). And her brother’s name is Nasu. In the beginning they herded the cow and Komi brought two cooking pots. Arriving at the river, Komi changed her shape to a crocodile and both of cooking pots changed to stone. Until this moment the reservoir’s name is “Nifu Bikomi” (Reservoir of Bikomi), where to take the holy water in the inaugural ceremony of “Luma”.


CHAPTER III
PUBLICATION AND TRANSCRIPTION OF THE TEXT

3.1 Publication of the Text
Original text of Luma
Un’unu pah Bikomi in feka nmui kanan oras nan pah Bikomi in kanan pah sarea. Lekam feot naij noba Usif Sanak in an feto nate’onon njael be’e nbinle oras nan pah sarea nakan’e neo pah Bikomi. Unun nan feka nateonon jael be’e feot naij nok in naofe natukun bijael, feot naij in kane komi nok in naofe in kane nasu oras nan sin nuasin naohen soten oel nuntia noele kome nak hen tam he naniu kome nok nai nijan nin nateonok kome njael be’e ma nae nin njael fatu, muni’ia nifu nan in kane nifu Bikomi. Nbin le bale’i, ton ton tob nem hen so’en oe luma oel mata hiut.
Ø Tama maus
Ta ton neo in apun ma tnanan he tatan suma mata hiut talila ma he tiun. In apun ina tnanan es pen muti ma pen molo aen muti aen molo.
Ø Eka hoe
Mau tut pen muti pen molo tsenan mat tbeben he neo batan ma ainuan, tait tan muit mese tasine neo pah oel pah meto ta ton uiskin matuakin hen npao man panat mnesa ma kla’o.
Ø Tsekal toel oaf
Ton nae’ok neon hitu fai hitu naekon natef naelen na tatan. Toena mat tbutun he nao neman tatnon sabaol aof toel aof, natui nafku ma na bol.
Ø Tah feo
Pen muti pen molo aen muti ntia namtas talila neo tuakinim uiskin. Sinit nahunun he hitat simo ma ta’taim.
Ø Toet ulan
Maut neno’i maput’e naek malal’e naek, baiseon tuakin ma uiskin nok amoet apakeat. He nasanut mainikin oetene he npope ma nae es sensene fua hiut ulan fua faon. He nasaon ton ma na nelton natuina mnesa klao nmaten nma no’onaen.

3.2 Transcription of the Text
Ø Tama maus
It is to tnform the ancestor for the seven water springs used to sprinkle the white corn, a yellow corn, and also white rice and yellow rice.
Ø Eka hoe
After white corn and yellow corn are sprinkled and planted, Eko hoe is done to ask the ancestors to the to keep the plants.
Ø Tsekal toel aof
Seven years and seven nights refer to the arrive of people that must change the roof of custom house.
Ø Tah feo
After getting the result of corn and rice planted, or harvest, Tah feo is done to give information for the ancestors as a mercy.

Ø Toet ulan
The summer is very hot, so Toet ulan should be performed to ask for the ancestor to give rain.

3.3 Notes on the Text and Its Transcription
1. In tradition of Bikomi ceremony, performing Luma is always early with superstitious language. People who are showing the language can use superstitious formula.
2. Luma is a oral tradition of Bikomi community done in December yearly before planting plants.




CHAPTER IV
FUNCTION AND VALUES OF “LUMA”

4.1 The Trust of Bikomi Community
Pah Bikomi Community has known the way to bow to the God before the formal religious came to Timor Island. The God that they should give a silent homage to called is: Apinat Aklahat, Amo’et Apakaet (Apinat is shine, Aklahat is cinder, Amoet: that is creator, apakaet is to make beautiful and is to carve).
In the tradition of Bikomi Community, all of the chain of their activity one proceeded by the custom ritual inauguration. All kinds of the ritual that they make one certaining trusted to give the strength and guidance for their life everyday.
Bikomi Community in Maslete has connection with trust system and idea about the God and spirit. The religious rituals that they make following Dawan human beings are such as the trust to the God that makes the heaven and the earth call “Uis Neno” (Uis : God, Neno :Sun).
“Uis Neno” concept is a form of heaven and earth imitated by human beings and applied in their household. That has a function for the protection places for their long life.
4.2 Steps of Luma Procession
1. Tama Maus ( to thank God pronunciation )
“Tama Maus” is a large inauguration done every year to give the present to the Creator “Uis Neno.” According to the grammar means “tama” the means “to bring to” or “to give”, “maus” means an inherited property. So “tama maus” in an as the inauguration to thank God or to bring the present to the God that they call “Uis Neno.”
Moreover to give the present such as to thank God pronunciation, they sit together as a fact that they receive the blessing of the God (Tsiom manikin Uis Neno). Before getting the food, the member of community can not come back to their house because “Tsiom manikin” is hoped by every one who comes to “hau monef” or inauguration place.
“tama maus” inauguration is a large inaugural performed yearly during seven days. The seven days has in connection with seven eye of sword that is secret puts away in the male custom house (tola mone).
Before do tama maus, there are five sessions of five session of inauguration, that should be dine as follows:
a. Tsekal Tuel Alf or Tsekal Tuel Aof
Tsekal tuel alf is an activity to replace clothes. It is meant to replace the roof of the custom house or “tola”.
b. Toet Ulan (to request the rain )
According to Bikomi Community, this activity is made one day after “tola” and the custom house has be replaced. After that, the rain will come tomorrow and it indicates that the community can be plant this year and they hope, they will from get blessing the Creator or God.
c. Luma, is a process of taking holy water from seven holy springs.
d. Taktona
After knowing the time for making the “tama maus” and announcing to the people, the members of community make “Taktona” that is meant to collide with the rice plants eat when inauguration is performed.
e. Give the sacrifice
In the inauguration of “tama maus”, people always present animal consisting of the eight of pigs. When giving the sacrifice, it is run with some properties such as equipments of the sacrifice, that is, Noin bena (the small silver), areca nut, iron bracelet, rice and sacrifice animal. These properties putt in a bowl called “kasui.”
2. Eka Hoe
The inauguration of “eka hoe” is made after one and half of month the rain grown or planted “Eka ho’e” is intended to ask for blessing to God that the plants are free born hit the rice-disease and natural disaster.
3. Soel Fini
“Soel fini” means to present the harvest yield to the God or the Creator. This activity is always made after the vegetable is harvested. This inauguration is meant thank God or to appreciate to the creator (God: Uis neno).
4. Tah Fe’u
Tah means eating, fe’u means new. So, tah fe’u is new eating. In the agricultural inauguration of Dawanesse “Tah fe’u” means eating new corns (pen fe’u). The inauguration of “tah fe’u” is made by each tribe in its custom house, coming to ask permission from the Creator or God so that they can eat the new corn.
From the series of inauguration of custom activity made before and after Luma inauguration, the writer will explain in detail about “luma.”
Luma is a yearly inauguration made by the Bikomi Community to ask for the blessing. ‘Luma’ inauguration is always made it on December. It is attended by custom parents from eighteen large tribes that will determine the day and the date to make it. The term of “Luma” is actually meant “Oel mata hiut” (the seven holy springs) or taking the holy water from the seven holy springs.
The evidence of “Luma” is the bamboo that contains the seven holy springs and packed by the black cloth. The procession of “Luma” starts from the custom house (Sonaf) and to returns again to the custom house. The routes of “Luma” procession are: Oeleu, Oelnitep, Noemeto, Nisani, Naesleu, Son Oel, and Oelatasi. The processing of “Luma” always begins at fifteen o’clock. It has mantra that is used at every steep, such as:
Go to take seven dew and seven wellsprings to under to Bikomi Bikomi leu tola.
But the mantra from Sonaf or custom house differs, that is:
Go to take seven dew and seven snows to under to Sonaf Bikomi
Those programs are displayed at every steep of procession of “Luma” and at each stopping place, people present a pig or silver money and those things will be presented in the custom house (Sonaf) to ask for the blessing. During the procession, “Luma” is brought by two men called “meob” (commander) who get trust from the King (Usif).

4.3 Value of Luma
Actually, Luma has some kinds of value as presented in the following:
· Social value
Luma is trusted by Bikomi community as a sacred thing that has strength. The strength of Luma is considered as thing that is very useful to the social’ life, especially in agriculture.
· Education value
Bikomi community very obe to ‘Luma’ because they trust that it as a blessing that give them the fresh and welfare life. In addition, it frightens its community because it is able to arrange the way of thinking, action and work.
· Historical value
Bikomi Community still carry out and trust Luma as the heritage of their ancestors that is still to permanent in their life and its strength is still alive in Bikomi Community.
· Religious value
Bikomi Community trust to the God (Uis Neno) by the ritual custom, before the formal religious comes to Timor. That can be proved with a fact that they always present a praybefore and after doing something, including Luma procession pray.
· Moral value
Luma procession teaches the moral values, such as manner to eat, manner to say, manner to sit and the other, that is arranged following their tradition.


CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1 Conclusions
According the analysis and discussion on over, so the writer can to conclusion that:
5.1.1 Luma contains five kinds of Value. First, social value. Luma is trusted by Bikomi community as a sacred thing that has strength and it is considered as a very useful thing to the social’ life, especially in agriculture. Second, education value. Bikomi community very obeys to ‘Luma’ because they trust that it as a blessing that gives them the fresh and welfare life, and frightens its community because it is able to arrange the way of thinking, action and work. Third, historical value. Bikomi Community still carries out and trusts Luma as the heritage of their ancestors that is still permanent in their life, inclding its strength. Fourth, religious value. Bikomi Community trusts to the God (Uis Neno) by the ritual custom. Luma procession is a fact that Bikomi community makes a relationship to God by displaying. And Fifth, oral value. Luma procession teaches manners to eat, to say, to sit and to perform tradition.
5.1.2 Luma procession is done before some kinds of traditional ceremonies. First, Tama Maus (to thank God pronunciation). It is a large inauguration done every year to give the present to the Creator “Uis Neno.” This cememony covers some sub-ceremonies: Tsekal Tuel Alf or Tsekal Tuel Aof (an activity to replace clothes or the roof of the custom house or “tola”), Toet Ulan (to request the rain and it is performed one day after “tola” and the custom house has been replaced), Luma (a process of taking holy water from seven holy springs), Taktona (that is meant to collide with the rice plants eat when inauguration is performed), and give the sacrifice like eight pigs accompanied with some properties such as Noin bena (the small silver), areca nut, iron bracelet, and rice. These properties are put in a bowl called “kasui.” Second, Eka Hoe. This inauguration is made after one and half month of the rain. It is intended to ask for blessing to God so that the plants are free from disease and natural disaster. Third, Soel Fini. It is meant to present the harvest yield to the God or the Creator. This activity is always made after the vegetable is harvested. And fourth, Tah Fe’u. It is new eating. In the agricultural inauguration of Dawanesse “Tah fe’u” means eating new corns (pen fe’u). It is made by each tribe in its custom house, coming to ask permission from the Creator or God so that they can eat the new corn. Luma is a yearly inauguration made by Bikomi Community to ask for blessing. ‘Luma’ inauguration is always made on December. It is attended by custom parents from eighteen large tribes that will determine the day and the date to make it. The term of “Luma” is actually meant “Oel mata hiut” (the seven holy springs) or taking the holy water from the seven holy springs.

5.2 Suggestions
Based on the two conclusions above, the writer would like to offer three institutions as follows:
5.2.1 Young generation. “Luma” is a historical matter that is very holy and gives blessing. Because of that, young generation, particularly of Bikomi community should learn and know Luma as an integrated part of Dawanesse culture.
5.2.2 The Government of North Central Timor Regency should promote Luma as a cultural tourism object that can attract many people to come to Kefamenanu to see and document Luma display.
5.2.3 Department of Education of North Central Timor Regency should try to promote Luma to schools so that it can be covered as a material of Local Loaded Curriculum. This way can help young generation to know much Luma.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
Danandjaya, J. 1984. Folklore Indonesia. Grafitipers Jakarta Pustaka.
Echols, J, M, and Hassan Shadily. 2000. An English-Indonesia Dictionary. Jakarta: Gramedia.
Keraf, G. 2001. Diksi dan Gaya Bahasa. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Keesing, M. 1981. Antropologi Budaya. Jakarta: Erlangga (Edisi Kedua).
Koentjaraningrat. 1990. Pengantar Ilmu Antropologi Budaya (Edisi Kedua). Jakarta: Erlangga.
Manser, H. M. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press.
Nurgiontoro, B. 1995. Teori Pengajian Fiksi. Yogyakarta: FPBS IKIP Karang Malang.
Sawu, A. T. 2006. Etnologi dan Tugas Perutusan. Ende: Nusa Indah.
Van Peursen, C.A. 1975. Strategi Kebudayaan (diindonesiakan oleh Dick Hartoko). Yogyakarta: Kanisius.
Wellek, R and Austin Warren. 1990. Teori Kesusastraan, Terjemahan Dick Hartoko. Jakarta: Gramedia.


Appendix 1
Identify of informants.
1. Name : Nimrot Sanak
Place /Date of Birth : Maslete, 21 November 1965
Address : Maslete
Job : Farmer
Religion : Catholic
Status : King

2. Name : Petrus Foni
Place /Date of Birth : Maslete, 12 Oktober 1959
Address : Maslete
Job : farmer
Religion : Catholic
Status : Takua

Appendix 2
Instrument
Daftar pedoman wawancara
1. Apakah anda mengetahui mitos LUMA secara jelas? Coba anda ceritakan!
2. Adakah dampak positif/negatif dalam masyarakat Bikomi!
3. Apakah ada pengaruh LUMA terhadap masyarakat Bikomi?
4. Apakah ada jalan keluarnya untuk mengatasi mitos LUMA?
5. Bagaimana caranya untuk bisa mengatasi mitos LUMA?
6. Apakah sikap masyarakat Bikomi terhadap mitos LUMA? Apakah mereka menghargai mitos LUMA / tidak?
7. Adakah nilai-nilai dalam mitos LUMA?
8. Siapakah yang akan memimpin acara mengatasi LUMA itu?
9. Apa saja yang dibutuhkan untuk mengatasinya dalam ritualnya?

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